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Figure 1: Red Sea fringing reef is
relatively shallow and lies just a short distance from the shore. This
photo, taken from offshore of the reef in approximately 4 meters of water,
depicts the mountainous landscape and new construction onshore. Future
inhabitants are just one of the many recent influences that poses a direct
threat to the health of the reef.
(click to enlarge)
Abstract

A four-year study, which began in
the summer of 2004, collected the first comprehensive time series of
measurements from a 0.5 km x 0.1 km fringing reef in the Gulf of Suez (29°
32' N and 32° 24' E), in the Red Sea. This reef occurs near the
northernmost extreme latitude for subtropical coral reefs. Here, corals
are exposed to daily water temperature changes of 2°C to 4°C, and seasonal
variations that exceed 15°C to 20°C. Salinities are among the highest in
the world and are considered extreme, ranging from 44 to 45 psu. This reef
has been subjected to many new stresses over the past four years,
including a newly built major shipping port, rapid coastal urbanization,
bleaching, and an oil spill in 2005.

Annual reef surveys include
random photo quadrats plus fish and coral video transects, supported by a
suite of environmental measurements. Results indicate that between 2005
and 2007, there was a statistically significant decline in reef health
indicators, including a 50% increase in dead and diseased coral, a 58%
increase in sea urchins, and decreases in biodiversity and sediment
constituent indices, fish abundance, and water quality. Of the
approximately 40 known coral species hardy enough to survive in this
region, six species make up 94% of the reef's coral cover. Given the
extreme natural environmental conditions in which this fringing reef has
thrived, the resilience of this community appears to be very high.
Unfortunately, this reef and others in the area are now threatened by
local anthropogenic impacts. This study establishes a reference point for
comparison with similar reefs and will be key to any future conservation
and restoration efforts.

Figure 2: Sketch depicting Zaki's reef
and the location of the five 10m transects that were monitored over four
years using digital video survey to assess coral and a separate survey to
estimate fish population diversity and abundance.
(click to
enlarge)

Figure 3: Raft containing typical
supplies used while sampling Zaki's Reef. The raft was towed behind two
snorkeling researchers. It held drinking water, camera gear, waterproof
log books, nylon rope, water sampling bottles, electronic handheld sensors
to monitor pH, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen, and a few
other essentials. A global positioning system (GPS) was used to return to
previously sampled locations and where sensors had been left.
(click to
enlarge)
Introduction

I sat
gazing out at the Red Sea's distinct and beautiful waters, majestic
mountains jutting upwards from the desert landscape behind me (Figure 1).
Little did I know that that day would bring a higher sense of meaning and
accomplishment to the next four years of my life. It was that day that I
uncovered a hidden treasure by discovering the existence of a pristine
coral reef just a block away from the beach I been coming to every summer.
Since that moment, I've satisfied my passion for science and my love of
the ocean by collecting the first known extensive time-series monitoring
of a fringing coral reef in the Red Sea's Gulf of Suez.

Reefs are
considered an early warning system for the world's oceans, and it is
estimated that 70% of the world's coral reefs will be destroyed within the
next few decades (Onaga 2001). This reef (dubbed "Zaki's Reef," after my
grandfather) is located at the northernmost latitude for a tropical or
semi-tropical reef (Figure 2). It lies at the edge of an extremely arid
desert where rainfall is nominal, evaporation rates are high, and
freshwater inputs are low due to persistent trade winds and extreme
temperatures. Only a few species of coral can successfully live in these
extreme conditions. A 2000 study (Moustafa 2000) estimates that 335
species of corals are found in the Red Sea, yet only approximately 35
species have been identified in the Gulf of Suez. The water in the Gulf of
Suez is very shallow (averaging 50 to 80 meters in depth), allowing for
excessive salinity (43 to 45 ppt) and large daily and seasonal temperature
fluctuations. The high temperature and salinity reduce oxygen solubility,
making it unsuitable for many species of reef-dwelling organisms. The
corals and organisms that do reside and thrive here must be able to
tolerate these extreme environmental conditions.

Zaki's Reef is a
small fringing reef (a reef of less than 1 km by 0.5 km) that averages
only one to two meters in depth, and can be accessed by a short swim from
the beach (Figure 1). Due to its remote desert location the reef had
remained pristine, but pollution from shipping and oil spillage pose a
significant threat (Spalding et al. 2001). The gaps in our scientific
knowledge of coral reefs in extreme locations are large, and the exact
thermal limits for reefs remain unknown (Grimsditch and Salm 2006). I
hypothesized that as man encroaches, this coral reef would be more
resilient to external stresses compared to tropical reefs, given the
extreme environmental conditions this reef normally experiences.

Figure 4: Sketch of Zaki's 0.5 km x 0.1
km fringing reef in the Gulf of Suez located (29¡ 32' N and 32¡ 24' E).
Reef showing approximate location of the five 10-m coral transects that
were monitored annually to evaluate change, and the delineation of the
reef into three arbitrary sub-regions for purposes of determining spatial
variability.
(click to enlarge)

Figure 5: Zaki sampling on Zaki's Reef
(named after my grandfather). Sampling occurred over several weeks during
the summer for four consecutive years. The reef lies swimming distance
from shore (approximately 100 m). Long twelve-hour days were spent in the
field taking photographs, gathering measurements, and collecting data with
the support of my father, mother, sister, and brother.
(click to
enlarge)
Purpose Of The
Research

The main goals of my research were to document the
effects of both natural and man-made influences on a unique, pristine,
isolated fringing coral reef located at an extreme northernly latitude
over a four-year period. My specific objectives were to: 1) determine the
reef's health and identify the dominant coral species; 2) assess the
reef's resilience to recent natural and man-made influences; 3) identify
the impacts of local natural and man-made influences, 4) conduct fish
surveys; 5) evaluate reef sediment distributions and biogenic components;
6) determine water-quality characteristics, and 7) share the results,
since data on this region is either lacking or nonexistent.

The
first-year data provided the baseline conditions necessary to characterize
the reef and observe interannual changes. Since sampling in 2004, a major
shipping port was constructed approximately five kilometers north of this
reef, causing an increase in local shipping traffic, seaside housing, oil
offloading, and local population. Through a quantitative comparison, I was
able to statistically compare baseline conditions with annual measurements
taken of the reef community using underwater digital photography and
movies. Trends in coral coverage, species abundance, and diversity were
calculated. Cause-and-effect relationships are suggested based on the
ecosystem's response to changing environmental conditions.

Methods

The methodologies used to sample this
reef coincide with universally accepted protocols (Hill and Wilkinson
2004). Field gear included snorkel equipment, digital still and video
underwater digital cameras, water measurement sensors, a GPS sensor, and a
raft (Figure 3). Between 2004 and 2007, I spent several weeks each summer
at the reef collecting data, using my brother, sister, and parents as my
field support.

Figure 6: Quadrat photo analysis
method. A 0.5 m2 PVC square dropped from the surface encompasses the
randomly selected area to be photographed. Whatever corals types lay
within each quadrat are identified and its coverage area within the
quadrat calculated using CPCe software (Kohler, 2006) with each digital
image.
(click to enlarge)
Video
Transect Survey

To assess reef health and community structure,
underwater video photography (Page et al. 2001) documented the changes
along five 10-meter-long transects located across the reef (Figure 4).
Video transect surveys were repeated each year. Fish surveys were also
conducted by logging and digitally recording species type and abundance
occurring over a five-minute period at three of the 10-meter transects
(Figure 5).

Photo Quadrat
Survey

An extensive random photo quadrat survey captured bottom
substrate photos from across the reef to establish percent coral coverage,
diversity, and species dominance (Figure 6). The percentage of bottom
coverage and coral type statistics were derived from the analysis of
approximately 120 random quadrat photos each year (Figure 7).

Water-Quality Sampling and Accessory
Data

Water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH
values were regularly measured across the reef (Figure 8). Additional
water samples were collected to perform water-quality analysis and to
examine reef water for coliform bacteria. Coral mucus, commonly excreted
by corals as a protection and known to trap particulate matter, was also
tested for coliform bacteria (Kellogg 2004). Underwater temperature
sensors measured water temperature at five locations across the reef.
Since the summer of 2006, a 15-minute time series of temperatures is being
measured at five locations across the reef using Onset underwater
temperature sensors to collect temperature and determine spatial
variability. Air temperature and basic meteorological data are also being
collected. Local tides, waves, wind data, ship traffic, and oil offloading
were regularly logged during fieldwork.

Figure 7: Analysis of quadrat data
using CPCe total area calculation or random point generation method to
calculate total coral coverage on quadrat photos which represent a half
square meter of reef. One method looks at total coverage area and the
second uses a specified number of randomly generated points on each frame
from which percent coverage of each bottom type can be inferred.
(click
to enlarge)
Sediment Sampling and
Analysis

Surface sediment samples were collected—by taking hand
grabs from the beach to just offshore of the reef—to determine the
sediments' biogenic composition and grain size distributions. The biogenic
composition of approximately 100 sand-size grains from each sample was
identified under a microscope (Figure 9). The number of coral grains,
forams, coralline red algae, gastropods, calcareous algae, echinoid
spines, worm tubes, and other skeletal fragments was tabulated, and then
the SEDCON Index (SI) (Daniels and Hallock 2006) was calculated as a
measure of reef health. Sediment grain-size analysis was performed by
manually sieving dried sediment into size classes and calculating class
percentages.

Computer Data
Analysis

Figure 8: Field sampling on the reef
includes measuring water temperature, salinity, dissolved Oxygen and pH.
Underwater cameras recorded movies and digital photos of the reef. A
handheld GPS was used to return to stations where sensors had been
placed.
(click to enlarge)
The sharpest digital images
were extracted from transect and quadrat survey data to identify coral
species and calculate the percentage of benthic coverage. To identify the
observed fish and coral types, a Red Sea comprehensive guidebook (Lieske
and Myers 2004) was used. Coral Point Count (CPCe) software (Kohler 2006)
was employed to evaluate coverage along each 10-meter transect by
extracting approximately 0.5-by-2-meter-wide swaths on 25 frames. Coral
coverage was determined by identifying the bottom coverage at 60
computer-generated random points, which were projected onto each image.
Sixty points were found to be statistically significant during earlier
analysis trials. CPCe software also determined the total area (in
cm2) covered by each coral species from each 0.5 m quadrat
photo. Analysis included identifying and counting sea urchins, fish, and
other organisms in each photo.

Results

In 2004, the study site was
extraordinarily healthy at the outset of this research, and the reef would
be characterized as pristine by experts. Unfortunately, in 2005 a major
oil spill occurred just three kilometers offshore of the reef during
summer sampling (Figure 10). Although environmentally tragic, this event
provided an opportunity to document the reef before and after an oil
spill, a very rare and unlikely occurrence in reef studies.

Figure 9: Example of biogenic sediment
analysis under a photo-microscope. Identified fragments are used to
evaluate reef health using the SEDCON Index (Daniels and Hallock, 2004).
Statistically significant changes occurred in the biogenic composition of
the sediment since 2004. Indicators suggest a decline in overall reef
health.
(click to enlarge)
Coral
Types and Coral Coverage

Each year, the total percentage of
bottom coverage and general reef health were compared to the 2004 baseline
survey data (Figure 11). Of the 30 or so coral species identified in the
Gulf of Suez, six of these make up 94% of Zaki's Reef, with approximately
80% being hard corals and 20% soft. Dominant hard coral species include
staghorn, Neptheidae, finger, and anemone (Porites) corals. On average, in
2004, 25% of the coral (mainly staghorn) was dead, most likely from past
bleaching events. The percentage of dead coral has varied over time, and
the dominant bottom-coverage types have shifted depending on the location
on the reef. In general, spatial patterns of coral coverage and health
indicate that the offshore regions of the reef where the water is deepest
are healthiest.

Averaged over four years, random quadrat survey
results indicate that staghorn is the dominant reef species (22.23% ± 5.08
SE), followed by finger coral (16.13% ± 1.14 SE), Nephtheidae (13.54% ±
1.92 SE), and anemone coral (11.87% ± 2.31 SE). Dead coral bottom coverage
over the four-year study had a mean value of 22.82% (± 4.3 SE). The
remaining major species, Faviidae and crystal corals, covered equal
amounts, averaging 5.5% (± 2.78 SE) and 4.9% (± 2.13 SE),
respectively.

Based on quadrat survey results, staghorn was the
dominant species (25%) at the outset of this research and continued to
grow/increase to more than 35% in 2005. However, there was a huge decline
in both staghorn (down to 14% from 35%) and crystal coral (down to <
0.3% from 7%) between 2005 and 2006. yet there was no observed change in
the percentage of dead coral that year, suggesting that the loss of
staghorn was compensated for by the growth of other species.

Figure 10: Oil covered the beach
directly behind Zaki's Reef, (A) one day after the oil spill in July of
2005. Two years later, evidence of this spill still prevails in the
sediment on the beach (B), on reef organisms (C) and in the sediment (D).
Human carelessness and oil tankers offloading their tanks in the vicinity
are responsible for careless spills of this nature occurring.
(click
to enlarge)

Figure 11: Percent change in coral
coverage over the four years based on the random 0.5 m squared quadrat
survey of the reef conducted each year. Note the increase in dead corals
by 2007.
(click to enlarge)
Video
Transects

Table 1 summarizes the net percentage change in each
coral type for all years sampled. At all five transects, Faviidae,
anemone, finger, Neptheidae, and staghorn were the dominant species. When
the 2007 coral coverage is compared to previous years, a net loss in coral
was observed at Transects 2 and 4, while overall growth was observed at
the other three transects. The Kruskal-Wallis statistical test for
population equality (Conover 1999) validated the null hypothesis that
there was not a significant difference (a = 0.05) in coral coverage at all
transects. Therefore, despite noted differences in species coverage
between years (Table 1), differences remain statistically insignificant (a
= 0.05); as some species declined, others may have grown.

Coral Diversity

The Simpson Weaver
biodiversity index (Shannon 1948) is an indicator of the number of species
and their evenness. Data from each transect and between transects
indicated that biodiversity varied significantly between years in every
instance (a = 0.05) (Figure 12).

Biogenic
Indicators

Bottom hand-grab sediment samples from across the
reef indicate that grain-size distributions remained consistent over time,
although their biogenic composition changed. After the oil spill,
sediments showed a statistically significant increase in the SI index due
to an increase in coral fragments and fewer foram fragments, suggesting
increasing mortality and ecosystem decline.

Sea Urchins

Long- and short-spine urchins
were counted in quadrat photos, with short-spine urchins being the most
abundant. Urchins feed on excess nutrients, thereby preventing algal
smothering of corals. As nutrient levels rise, urchin populations
typically increase and can eventually become detrimental to coral health.
An algae biomass increase is often caused by the presence of wastewater
and high nutrient levels. While the sea urchin population counts remained
constant in 2004 and 2005, a notable 42% increase in short-spine urchins
was observed between 2005 and 2006, and a statistically significant
increase of 58% between 2006 and 2007 (Table 2).

Table 1: Percent change in coral
coverage at each of the five permanent transects monitored since 2004 or
2005. Transects 1, 3, and 5 show a net increase in coral coverage, while
Transects 2 and 4 indicate an overall decrease.
(click to
enlarge)
Fish
Transects

Annual fish surveys were performed by collecting
video and observational logs of organisms from three of the permanent reef
transect locations. Among the most abundant fish species documented were
lizardfish, bluestreak cleaner wrasse, Indo-Pacific sergeant, yellowbar
angelfish, and Red Sea anemone fish. Based on these annual surveys, there
was a noticeable decline in fish community abundance and diversity after
the 2005 oil spill.

2005 Oil
Spill

A 2005 oil spill occurred less than three kilometers
away, dumping thousands of gallons of heavy crude oil onto Zaki's Reef.
Immediate effects to the area included increased turbidity, a clumping of
oil in sediment and on rock faces, and a gummy residue on urchin spines.
More than two years later, the effects of the 2005 oil spill are still
widespread on the reef and beach. Thick oil remains caked on rocks on the
upper beach face and a few centimeters below the surface sediment on the
lower beach and reef. Petroleum hydrocarbons present in the sediment and
on coral tissue will prolong injury and may continue to for years to
come.

Table 2: Changes in four-year urchin
count on Zaki's fringing Red Sea coral reef show an overall 51% increase
in the urchin population since 2004.
(click to enlarge)
Temperature

Air and water temperature time
series records were collected, as previously mentioned. On average, daily
air-temperature lows reached 21ºC while maximums were around 39ºC, a
difference of 18ºC. Underwater sensors at each transect exhibited daily
water temperature differences ranging from 0.3ºC to 4.4ºC. Annual water
temperatures on the reef fluctuate widely, ranging from a low of
14oC in February to a maximum of 34ºC in September. Shallower
regions of the reef were warmer and displayed wider daily temperature
ranges than those in deeper water, which experience stronger currents that
allow for greater water exchange. In 2005, evidence of a global bleaching
event, caused by water temperatures going more than 2°C above their
average maximum, were documented by our U/W temperature sensors.

Coral Disease and Bleaching

Annual digital
photos across the reef led me to capture various coral diseases and
document an increase in coral fish bites. Observations of coral disease
increased greatly in 2006, the year after the oil spill (Figure 13). With
the help of coral disease experts, I soon discovered that these photos
documented the first occurrence of certain coral diseases in this region
of the world, and that many of the coral diseases remain unknown,
especially their causes. In 2007, nearly all water and mucus samples
tested positive for enterococcus, a potential cause for the increase in
diseases (Kellogg 2004). Since 2004, many reef regions have become
overgrown by algae and algal mats, and with the zoanthids that typically
colonize coral rubble, reducing the space for new coral colonies to
settle.

Table 3: The known stresses affecting
Zaki's Reef were ranked (1-10) based on their observed significance in
2007.
(click to enlarge)
Water
Quality

Near-surface water samples from across the reef
indicated the following average values: pH 8.13, salinity 44 ppt (average
ocean salinity is 34 to 35 ppt), and dissolved oxygen (DO) was 0.271 ml/l.
Annual water-quality analysis included total phosphorus (TP), soluble
reactive phosphorus (SRP), total organic carbon (TOC), and dissolved
inorganic nitrogen (DIN). SRP and DIN were compared to values reported in
the literature (i.e., Lapointe et al. 1997). SRP concentrations were close
to or lower than the literature-reported values, while DIN observations
exceeded the literature's values by a factor of 10 or more.

Table 3
summarizes the known man-made and natural influences thought to be
affecting this reef. The response of the reef community to recent stresses
is mixed. In 2007, some positive signs were evident, as three of the five
monitored transects indicated a net increase in coral growth since 2004.
Despite these hopeful signs, the reef's health has deteriorated over the
past four years. The quadrat survey showed a 50% increase in dead coral
across the reef between 2006 and 2007, and a 33% increase since the 2004
survey. Results suggest that corals stressed by oil appear more
susceptible to epidemic disease and appear to have a harder time
recovering from fish bites and bleaching (Goreau and Hilbertz 2004). Since
2004, based on quadrat surveys, a statistically significant increase in
dead corals was found. Urchin abundance also showed a significant
increase, as did the calculated sediment biogenic index. The documented
increases in coral disease, fish bites, water turbidity, and sedimentation
on corals, and declines in water quality and fish abundance and diversity,
can be interpreted as a decline in overall reef health.

Figure 13: Incidences of coral disease
and fish bites on the reef have increased dramatically since the oil spill
in 2005.
(click to enlarge)
Discussion

The survival of this reef, which
is thriving in extreme environmental conditions, clearly demonstrates its
resilience through the years. At the start of the experiment in 2004,
photos indicated that the reef was healthy and considered in pristine
condition. Visibility was high, the water was clear, and sea urchin
population counts were relatively moderate. The sediment biogenic index
initially suggested a healthy reef, and little evidence of coral disease
was noted. Data from 2004/2005, prior to the oil spill, serves as a
reference for baseline conditions, not only for this study, but also for
any future coral reef studies in this region.

As man encroaches,
human impact is no longer in question. Fishermen have relocated closer to
the reef, beach houses that were under construction are now occupied, and
with the newly constructed major shipping port, local shipping and oil
offloading traffic has increased significantly. Enormous tanker ships
transiting in very shallow water are displacing large amounts of sediment
that appears to be ending up on the reef and suffocating the corals. The
Red Sea coastline here is being developed at an alarming rate without
concern for the impact this will have on the local environment.

Figure 14: A Four-year comparison along
Transect One taken each year at the same location. The degradation over
time is seen.
(click to enlarge)
The statistically
significant increase in the urchin population in 2007 can most likely be
attributed to the tremendous increase in algae coverage observed on the
reef. The increase in algae coverage can in turn be attributed to the
excess amount of nutrients measured in the water. Excess nitrogen (DIN)
levels, whose probable sources are human sewage, greatly exceed expected
values. The source of excess phosphorus (SRP) in water samples is
uncertain, but the infectious agents that cause diseases may feed off
these extra nutrients and coliform bacteria. Examination of the sediment
indicates an increase in the percentage of coral fragments and increasing
mortality among coral species.

Based on the survival of reefs in
this region for so many years, we can infer that select corals and their
inhabitants can successfully thrive under extreme conditions of
temperature and salinity. Comparison with other available reef data
suggests that these ecosystems have adapted and appear more resilient to
large daily, seasonal, and interannual temperature variations than more
southerly reefs, or northern reefs in less extreme environments.
Anthropogenic stressors are believed to be responsible for the recent
degradation to this and neighboring reefs. The reef is rapidly becoming
surrounded by man-made influences that will inevitably affect reef health.
Threats include: a) increased shipping traffic, especially from oil
tankers, b) continued growth of the new shipping port, c) increased
nutrient loading from ships dumping waste, fertilizer factories, and
outdated water treatment systems, d) increased tourism and urbanization,
e) increased sedimentation and runoff caused by urbanization, f) physical
damage from careless boaters or swimmers, g) and continued beachfront
construction. As these man-made factors intensify, the fate of the reef
becomes increasingly questionable.

Figure 15: A Four-year comparison along
Transect two taken each year at the same location. The degradation over
time is seen.
(click to enlarge)
Conclusions

Based on four years of data, the
fate of this reef is uncertain, although the resilience of this reef
community appears to be very strong. Population statistics of coral
coverage indicate no significant difference over four years, yet
bio-indicators show statistically significant changes in the biogenic
composition of the sediment and the sea urchin population, and mixed
results from the corals' biodiversity index calculated along each
transect. It is speculated that the measured decline in reef health and
documented increase in coral disease across the reef since 2005 (Figures
14 and 15) were strongly influenced by the oil spill. This trauma may have
made the reef community less resistant to the natural stresses it normally
tolerates.

Figure 16: The Simpson Index measures
biodiversity and population evenness based on the amount and number of
species present. This index varies greatly depending on a transects
location on the reef with deeper transects tending to be healthier. The
water depth ranged from 0.5 to 3.0 m along the ten-meter transects.
Changes in the index can be attributed to shifts in coral coverage and
type.
(click to enlarge)
The shifting of corals and bottom
coverage on the reef and the notable increase in coral fish bites,
bleaching, and diseases suggest an inability of the coral to heal from the
sudden onslaught of many anthropogenic stresses. The decline in fish
abundance and diversity observed in 2006 and 2007 is thought to have been
caused by oil damaging or depleting the reef of healthy corals that are
necessary as food and habitat. Whatever it is, the extensive data suggest
that the decline in reef health is occurring from man-made factors rather
than natural causes. Zaki's Reef may soon reach a point at which
equilibrium within this ecosystem can no longer be achieved, and a
community that has thrived for hundreds if not thousands of years will be
gone in less than a decade.

This study has established a reference
point for comparison with local reefs, or those experiencing similar
conditions, and will be key to any future conservation and restoration
efforts in the area. Future plans include continuing to monitor this reef
and making comparisons with other reefs worldwide. The culmination of this
research will establish a data set that can be used by decision makers to
implement future restoration and marine conservation measures for similar
reefs. Disease types, and potential causes for the increased occurrence of
coral diseases and fish bites, will be looked at in greater
detail.

I plan to share my results from this extensive time series
of measurements for this Gulf of Suez fringing reef. My effort includes
making the local population aware of how they can reduce damage to local
reefs by educating them about the simple preventative measures they can
undertake to maintain local reef health and hopefully extend the lives of
these stressed communities for future generations.

Bibliography

Conover, W.J. Practical
Nonparametric Statistics (3rd edition). Wiley, 1999.

Daniels,
C., and P. Hallock. "Coral Reef Assessment: An Index Utilizing Sediment
Constituents." American Society of Limnology and Oceanography
(ASLO), Honolulu, Hawaii, 20-24 February 2006.

Goreau, Thomas, and
Wolf Hilbertz. "Biorock Coral Reef Restoration Workshop Report," January
2004. Retrieved from the World Wide Web in October 2006.
http://www.globalcoral.org

Grimsditch, Gabriel, and R.V. Salm.
"Coral Reef Resilience and Resistance to Bleaching." International World
Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland, 2006.

Hallock P., B. Liz,
E. Carnahan, C. Daniels, and A.M. Hoare. "Three low-cost tools for reef
monitoring and risk assessment: Distinguishing local from global
stresses." Association of Tropical Biology and Conservation (ATBC) Annual
Meeting, Miami, FL, 12-15 July 2004.

Kellogg, C. "Coral Mucus Goes
Mainstream—New Discoveries in Mucus-Hosted Microbial Communities." United
States Geological Survey, Sound Waves Newsletter 2004. Retrieved
from the World Wide Web in October 2006.
http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2004/06/research.html

Kohler, K.E., and
S.M. Gill. "Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A Visual Basic
program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random
point count methodology." Computers and Geosciences 32.9 (2006):
1259-1269.

Lapointe, B.E., M.M. Littler, and D.S. Litler.
"Macroalgal overgrowth of fringing coral reefs at Discovery Bay, Jamaica:
Bottom-up versus top-down control." Proc 8th Intl. Coral Reef Sym 1
(1997): 927-932.

Lieske, E., and Robert Myers. Coral Reef Guide
Red Sea. London: Collins Publishers, 2004.

Moustafa, Fouda.
"Status of Coral Reefs in the Middle East." AIMS, 2000. Retrieved from the
World Wide Web in June 2007. http://www.aims.gov.au

Onaga, Lisa.
"Protecting coral reefs a must to maintain sea habitat." USA Today,
25 May 2001.
http://www.usatoday.com/news/science/aaas/2001-05-24-coral-reef.htm

Page,
C., G. Coleman, R. Ninio, and K. Osborne. "Surveys of sessile benthic
communities using the video technique." AIMS Standard Operational
Procedure, 2001.

Shannon, C.E. "A mathematical theory of
communication." Bell System Technical Journal 27 (July and October
1948): 379-423 and 623-656.

Spalding, M., C. Ravilious, and E.
Green. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 2001.

Hill, J., and C. Wilkinson. Methods for
Ecological Monitoring of Coral Reefs. Townsville, Australia:
Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2004.

© 2008 American Museum of Natural History. All
rights reserved.

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